Neighborhood greenspace visits and mental health: insights from mobility data across nine U.S. metropolitan areas

Background: Access to greenspace supports mental health, but most studies focus on the presence of greenness rather than actual use. Fewer explore how the association may vary within city boundaries and suburban areas. Objective: We examined associations between neighborhood-level greenspace visits and poor mental health across nine U.S. metropolitan statistical areas (MSA), adjusting for Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), demographics, and social vulnerability, and evaluated spatial heterogeneity. Methods: We integrated greenspace visits, CDC PLACES mental health estimates (2023), Social Vulnerability Index (2018), demographics (ACS 2010–2014), and NDVI (2021). Ordinary least squares (OLS) models were conducted for each metro and overall, adjusting for NDVI, SVI themes, and demographics. Multi-scale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) assessed spatial variation. Results: The sample included 13,152 tracts across nine MSAs (72.5 million residents). Poor mental health prevalence ranged from 12.9% (DC) to 18.7% (Houston), while visits ranged from 11.5 (Houston) to 33.2 (DC). In pooled models, more visits indicated better mental health (β = −0.029; R² = 0.62). Metro-specific models showed strongest effects in Houston (β = −0.113; R² = 0.716) and Atlanta (β = −0.096; R² = 0.634), with weaker results in Philadelphia and DC. MGWR revealed strong urban-core associations in Houston, Atlanta, and Dallas, while peripheral tracts often showed null effects. Conclusions: Greenspace engagement, not just presence was linked to lower poor mental health across the metros, though associations varied by neighborhood. Promoting use may improve mental health, but interventions should account for local context and social vulnerability.